Swinging Sixties

Discuss the changes in US society and culture in the 1960s

The 1960s was when the pendulum swung from the right to the left. This was a manifestation of Newton's Third Law: every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Specifically, the 60s was a time characterised by a liberal and progressive response to the prior years of conservatism and traditionalism.  This essay will investigate the changes in US society and culture in the 1960s. The debate surrounding the nature of such changes falls into two schools of historiographical thought. Historians such as Ruth Rose and Melvin Small emphasise that radical change characterised the decade. On the other hand, historians such as Stephanie Coontz and Ari Berman contend that the changes were limited. This essay places itself between the two historiographical interpretations. Firstly, this essay will explore the civil rights movements; secondly, the women's rights movements; and finally, the counterculture movement more broadly, concluding that despite certain traditional stubborn norms and customs remaining and a conservative reaction in the 70s serving to undermine some of the changes of the 60s, that significant changes of a liberal nature in US society and culture prevailed in the 60s, laying solid foundations for future progress. 

The civil rights movements brought about major transformations in US society during the 1960s by significantly advancing racial equality. This racial equality was particularly brought about through the dynamic interplay between efforts by the grassroots, individual leaders and the government. Specifically, protests by ordinary people (such as students) and individual leaders (such as Martin Luther King) collectively pressured the government to legislate acts crucial to dismantling inequality. A classic example of the former includes the student sit-in movement in Greensboro, initiated by four black college students, on February 1 1960.  The peaceful protest inspired mass change — a catalyst for subsequent sit-in movements in which 70,000 people would participate. Ultimately, as Clayborne Carson maintains, although not directly, such sit-in movements importantly contributed to Title II of The Civil Rights Act of 1964, outlawing segregation within public spaces such as hotels, restaurants or theatres. An example of the latter is the June 1963 protests in the city of Birmingham, Alabama, under Martin Luther King. King’s framing of the protest as a moral issue, proclaiming that ‘Paul Tillich has said that sin is separation’ and the police attacks on innocent protesters stirred Kennedy’s moral imagination. Consequently, in the summer of 1963, he introduced the civil rights bill, passed in 1964 under the Johnson administration. In a parallel manner, the Selma Alabama protests in 1965, organised by leaders such as Amelia Robinson pressured the government into ceding freedoms to disenfranchised black Americans. The previously reluctant Johnson was made to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965, prohibiting racial discrimination in voting. Together, the people and local individual leaders pressured the government into passing legislation which they otherwise would not, helping to end the two major inequalities of the time: segregation and disenfranchisement of blacks.  

Some historians have critiqued the significance of such civil rights movements in bringing about profound social change. For example, despite the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing segregation, critics such as Michael Klarman and Gary Orfield note that the integration of blacks into society existed on a purely superficial level. They attribute this to the deeply ingrained nature of racism within whites and especially Southerners, which could not be rid of through legislation. This argument is supported by psychological discoveries such as ‘Social Identity Theory’ founded by Tajfel and Turner in 1979. The theory posits that the mere existence of two groups (such as blacks and whites) is sufficient to generate tribalism, which racism is a form of. This finding hints at the psychological ‘defaultness’ and innateness of racism, and the consequent difficulty in erasing such racism simply via legislation. However, these scholars fail to take into account a crucial fact. Superficially though it may be, the exposure of those of differing ‘tribes’ to one another increases the probability that commonalities are discovered between them. This fundamentally increases the likelihood that whites start seeing blacks as a member of their in-group. Furthermore, historians such as Ari Berman, in his book Give Us the Ballot, argue that while the Voting Act of 1965 removed systematic and legislative barriers regarding the voting rights of blacks, many boundaries remained. He lists the emergence of novel obstacles, such as gerrymandering and stringent voter ID laws, as crucial in undermining the enfranchisement. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that though imperfect, the changes brought about by the civil rights movement of the 60s, objectively contributed to a de jure and de facto increase in social equality, laying strong foundations for further improvements to come.

In the landscape of the 1960s, the women’s movement emerged as a transformative force, marking a significant shift in the social and cultural fabric of the United States. Sparked by the publication of feminist historian Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, 1963, which gave voice to the unspoken dissatisfaction of middle-class housewives, the movement challenged the idea that women’s roles were limited to homemakers and nurturers. This book consequently triggered a second-wave of feminism, which campaigned for equal occupational and educational rights, culminating in legislative milestones such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963. The National Organisation for Women was founded in 1966 to further enforce such equality. The discontentment of women with their traditional roles and their transcending of such roles is illustrated in popular culture, notably in the TV show ‘Mad Men’, set from 1960 to 1970. The frustration is depicted in a scene where Betty Draper, the protagonist’s housewife, cathartically and aggressively indulges in the masculine hobby of pigeon shooting after her husband leaves for work, a silent rebellion against her constricted domestic existence. It is also elucidated in the contrasting portrayals of Betty and Megan. Betty, emblematic of the 50s, is portrayed as eternally depressed, whilst Megan, symbolic of the 60s, is depicted as a lively working woman. Importantly, Megan demonstrates the evolving societal and cultural roles of women during the 1960s. 

Ruth Rosen argues that the women’s movements of the 1960s led to cultural and social changes, inspiring significant legislative successes such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which inhibited employment discrimination based on gender. Nevertheless, many other scholars have critiqued that women’s movements affected substantial change in the 1960s. Critics like Stephanie Coontz argue that despite the gains of the 1960s, many potent sexist attitudes remained. For instance, in The Way We Never Were, 1992, Coontz argues women’s abilities to carve careers for themselves were hindered by obstacles in the male dominated world, as shown by Peggy Olsen in Mad Men. During her first day at Sterling Cooper, she receives advice from a colleague perpetuating old norms:  ‘Invest in aspirin, band-aids, and a needle and thread… [the boss] may act like he wants a secretary’ but he is  ‘looking for something between a mother and a waitress.’  Furthermore  financially, unmarried women were barred from having credit cards throughout the 60s. It was not until the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974 that all genders could have credit cards. Academically, women were inhibited from getting an Ivy League education. Despite a few exceptions, such as the University of Pennsylvania and Cornell, most universities, such as Yale and Harvard, did not accept female students until 1969 and, in Harvard’s case, 1977. Professionally, in most states, women could not serve on a jury. This was fundamentally due to her primary obligation to the home. This sentiment was echoed by Kennedy, a relatively liberal president, who, in a broadcast discussion with Roosevelt in 1962, stated that the primary responsibility of women was ‘the home.’ It was not until 1973 that women could serve on juries in all fifty states. Overall, however, despite certain stubborn gender expectations remaining, profound shifts in the role of women in the 60s were propelled by women’s movements, incrementally serving to erode such obstacles.

The 1960s in the United States witnessed the rise of a counterculture that fundamentally challenged American society’s established norms and conventions. This counterculture, primarily driven by a disillusioned youth, fueled most of the decade’s movements, including the civil rights and women’s movements discussed above. Other movements included anti-war efforts. Central to this movement were the actions of organisations such as Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), which led many protests against the Vietnam War, including the nationwide campaign against the military draft in the spring of 1965. Draft card burnings, confrontations with military recruiters on college campuses, and sit-ins against ROTC programs characterised the protests. Additionally, the counterculture movement made significant strides in advancing gay rights. Due to pervasive laws against homosexuals, exemplified by President Dwight Eisenhower’s executive order banning the employment of gays in the government, activist groups like the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis sought change. A notable climax of this advocacy occurred in June 1969, when a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in Manhattan, sparked riots, ultimately leading to the formation of the Gay Liberation Front. Simultaneously, the 60s witnessed the rise of the hippie movement, which brought with it experimentation with communal living, promiscuous sexual relations and widespread use of psychedelic drugs like LSD and marijuana. This cultural shift was reflected in the rock music of the time, with artists such as Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin encapsulating the spirit of the age through their lyrics and lifestyles. Overall, the 1960s witnessed a monumental shift in cultural attitudes across multiple areas due to the counterculture movement. These shifts drastically altered the American cultural landscape and set the stage for ongoing social transformations, indicating the profound impact of this dynamic period.

The counterculture of the 1960s had a complex impact on American society and culture, with its success varying across different areas. Some scholars argue that certain critical changes attributed to the counterculture, such as sexual liberation, were influenced more heavily by technological advancements, like the oral contraceptive, rather than by the movement itself. Additionally, the AIDS epidemic of the 1980s significantly halted the momentum of the sexual revolution. The conservative reaction to the counterculture also sought to undermine the extent of the success of the movement, with conservative students deliberately engaging with texts like Edgar Hoover’s A Study of Communism, participating in organisations like the College Republicans, and organising events that upheld traditional gender norms, acting to reverse the impact of the counterculture. Politically, the late 1960s witnessed a conservative resurgence, evidenced by the election of Richard Nixon in 1968, who reversed many of the cultural changes of the earlier part of the decade. Despite this, several cultural changes initiated by the counterculture have long endured, particularly in art and rock music, with artists like Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, and Pink Floyd continuing to be celebrated. Furthermore, the anti-war protests, akin to the civil rights movements, played a crucial role in pressuring the government to capitulate. In 1969, Nixon initiated the process of Vietnamisation, and in 1973, the US officially withdrew from Vietnam. Nixon recognised public opinion’s impact on his policy decisions, though he often framed this within a broader national sentiment rather than attributing it directly to the protests. Scholars like Daniel Hallin maintain this in The Uncensored War, who observes that the media’s coverage of the anti-war movements was critical in shaping public opinion and influencing political leaders. Historian Melvin Small adds to this in Antiwarriors, examining Nixon’s public statements and private recordings, arguing that Nixon was aware of the need to address and end the growing unrest due to the war. Overall, the counterculture significantly shaped American society and culture. Although many changes were later tamed, many milestones were achieved, and its legacy remains, especially in the artistic domain. 

In conclusion, considerable changes in US society and culture occurred throughout the 1960s. Many existing traditional attitudes lingered, serving to limit the degree of the change; however, the movements of the 60s irrefutably altered the social and cultural landscape, laying firm foundations for future progress. The civil rights movement helped to pressure the federal government to pass revolutionary legislation such as the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Act. Racism existed; therefore, many novel ways to disenfranchise and segregate blacks were devised, but de juro and de facto, such a movement helped to advance equality in a manner never seen before. The women’s rights movement, heavily animated by Betty Friedan, transformed women’s societal role from domestic housewives to working women. Despite an equalisation of opportunities, sexist attitudes remained, posing obstacles for women in the workforce, as exemplified in Mad Men. However, the women’s movements of the 60s crucially paved the way for the many liberties women would gain in the years to come. These movements were part of the broader countercultural movement, which notably inspired the peaceful years of the Nixon administration and the flourishing of the cultural domain with rock and roll artists of the 60s revered today. Despite conservative pushback acting to limit the impact of the countercultural movement, transformations never seen before occurred in multiple realms of life.

Note ~

This essay was written for an end of year exam, for a third year undergraduate Cold War module at the University of Queen Mary. Such a text is written in a fashion most divorced from my usual style, it is clear and academic, though rather monotonous and dull for my personal liking. Nonetheless, it was added to this website in hopes of adding variety and perhaps appealing to more pragmatic, literalist, and prosaic thinkers.